Over the last several decades, pork producers have worked to achieve significant and continuing trends for more efficient pork production. In the U.S., for example, the number of pigs weaned per female per year increased by 7.67% over the 5-year period from 2016 - 2021 (Table 1). Continuing advances in genetics, housing, management, and animal performance potential is contributing to improved efficiencies and sustainability of pork production. Nevertheless, continuous advancements in swine nutrition are essential to address opportunities and challenges in modern pork production. Understanding animals’ nutritional requirements for supporting optimal animal performance is dsm-firmenich’s primary focus. For the last 70 years, dsm-firmenich (formerly Roche) has published and revised vitamin supplementation guidelines with periodic updates that are needed to reflect the most recent scientific advances in nutrition, genetics, industry practices and objectives.
Table 1. Summary of Average Annual Sow and Litter Performance in the U.S. from 2016 – 2021 (adapted from https://www.pigchamp.com/news/benchmark-magazine )
2016 (416 farms) | 2017 (340 farms) | 2018 (375 farms) | 2019 (365 farms) | 2020 (305 farms) | 2021 (292 farms) | % delta 2021/2016 | % delta/year 2021/2016 | |
Average pigs/litter (n.) | 13.95 | 14.22 | 14.43 | 14.71 | 14.99 | 15.20 | +8.96 | +1.8 |
Average born alive/litter (n.) | 12.58 | 12.71 | 12.90 | 13.20 | 13.46 | 13.54 | +7.63 | +1.5 |
Liveborn female/year (n.) | 27.74 | 28.53 | 28.62 | 29.74 | 29.38 | 29.54 | +6.49 | +1.3 |
Pre-weaning mortality (%) | 15.37 | 14.69 | 14.85 | 14.55 | 15.42 | 15.70 | +2.14 | +0.4 |
Average age at weaning (dd) | 20.54 | 20.71 | 20.74 | 20.82 | 20.66 | 20.84 | +1.46 | +0.3 |
Average litter weaning weight (kg) | 148.32 | 141.00 | 132.95 | 130.33 | 131.86 | 124.54 | -16.03 | -3.2 |
Pigs weaned per litter weaned (n.) | 11.03 | 11.16 | 11.23 | 11.48 | 11.77 | 11.85 | +7.43 | +1.5 |
Pigs weaned per female/year (n.) | 23.06 | 23.82 | 24.11 | 24.86 | 24.84 | 24.83 | +7.67 | +1.5 |
Sows and gilts death rate (%) | 10.00 | 10.73 | 11.68 | 12.31 | 13.91 | 14.86 | +48.60 | +9.7 |
Culling rate (%) | 44.51 | 42.31 | 45.06 | 45.69 | 48.79 | 46.29 | +3.99 | +0.8 |
The discovery and recognition of vitamins as essential micronutrients for the normal functioning and health of humans and animals are among the most important achievements in the last 120 years. These discoveries, together with other advances in nutrition, have contributed to improvements in human and animal health during that time. While vitamins are a recognized class of essential nutrients, the roles of vitamins in metabolism are quite diverse and intertwined with the efficient use of the other nutrients in the diet (Table 2). The earliest understandings of the specific and basic functions for each of the vitamins in metabolism are primarily the result of scientific investigations that identified the minimum requirements necessary to prevent deficiency symptoms and associated nutritional diseases (Table 3).
Table 2. Functions of Individual Vitamins
Vitamin | Primary Function |
Vitamin A | Essential for growth, health (immunity), reproduction (steroid synthesis), vision, development and integrity of skin, epithelia and mucosa |
Vitamin D | Homeostasis of calcium and phosphorus (intestine, bones and kidney), regulation of bones calcification, modulation of the immune system, muscular cell growth |
Vitamin E | Most powerful fat-soluble antioxidant, immune system modulation, tissue protection, fertility, meat quality |
Menadione | Blood clotting and coagulation, coenzyme in metabolic process related to bone mineralization (Ca binding proteins) and protein formation |
Niacin | Coenzyme (active forms NAD and NADP) in amino acids, fats and carbohydrates metabolism. Required for optimum tissue integrity, particularly for the skin, the gastrointestinal tract and the nervous system |
Thiamin | Coenzyme in several enzymatic reactions, carbohydrate metabolism (conversion of glucose into energy), involved in ATP, DNA and RNA production, synthesis of acetylcholine, essential in transmission of nervous impulses |
Riboflavin | Fat and protein metabolism, flavin coenzyme (FMN and FAD) synthesis, essentials for energy production (respiratory chain), involved in synthesis of steroids, red blood cells and glycogen, integrity of mucosa membranes and antioxidant system within cells |
Pyridoxine | Amino acids, fats and carbohydrate metabolism, essential for DNA and RNA synthesis, involved in the synthesis of niacin from tryptophan |
Vitamin B12 | Synthesis of red blood cells and growth, involved in methionine metabolism, coenzyme in nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and protein metabolism, metabolism of fats and carbohydrates |
Pantothenic acid | Present in Coenzyme A (CoA) and Acyl Carrier Protein (ACP) involved in carbohydrate, fat and protein metabolism, biosynthesis of long-chain fatty acids, phospholipids and steroid hormones |
Folic acid | Coenzyme in the synthesis of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and proteins (methyl groups), stimulates the hematopoietic system, with vitamin B12 it converts homocysteine into methionine |
Biotin | Coenzyme in protein, fat and carbohydrates metabolism, normal blood glucose level, synthesis of fatty acids, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and proteins (keratin) |
Vitamin C | Intracellular (water-soluble) antioxidant, immune system modulation: stimulation of phagocytosis, collagen biosynthesis, formation of connective tissues, cartilage and bones, synthesis of corticosteroids and steroid metabolism, conversion of vitamin D3 to its active form 1,25(OH)2D3 |
Choline | Membrane structural component (phosphatidylcholine), fat transport and metabolism in the liver, support nervous system function (acetylcholine), source of methyl donors for methionine regeneration from homocysteine |
Table 3. Deficiency Symptoms of Individual Vitamins
Vitamin | Primary Deficiency Symptoms |
Vitamin A | Blindness or night-blindness (xeropthalmia), loss of appetite, poor absorption of nutrients, decreased growth and, in severe cases, death; reduced immune response and increased risk of infections (respiratory and intestinal), reproduction defects such as failure of spermatogenesis in the male and fetal resorption or death in the female swine; dry and scaly skin, keratinization of epithelial tissues |
Vitamin D | Rickets and osteomalacia, bone disorders (e.g., soft bones) and lameness, stiff and hesitant gait, reduced growth rate, muscular weakness |
Vitamin E | Muscular dystrophy and myopathy, Mulberry heart disease, reduced immune response, reduced fertility and Mastitis, Metritis and Agalactia (MMA) in sows, meat quality defects: drip-loss, off-flavors |
Menadione | Increased clotting time, hemorrhagic diseases, anemia and weakness, bone disorders, hematomas or blood swelling in the ears |
Niacin | Nervous system disorders, inflammation and ulcers of mucous membranes, reduced growth and feed efficiency, dermatitis (pellagra), hair loss, ulcerative necrotic lesions of the large intestine, diarrhea, reduced reproductive performance |
Thiamin | Loss of appetite up to anorexia and vomiting, reduced growth rate, neuropathies (polio encephalomalacia-PEM), general muscle weakness, poor leg coordination, fatty degeneration and necrosis of heart fibers (cardiac failure), mucosal inflammation with gastrointestinal malfunction |
Riboflavin | Reduced feed intake and growth; reduced absorption of zinc, iron and calcium; inflammation of the mucous membranes of digestive tract; scours and ulcerative colitis; fertility impairments |
Pyridoxine | Growth retardation, lesser feed intake and protein retention; dermatitis, rough hair coat, scaly skin; disorders of blood parameters; brown exudate of the eyes; anemia and ascites; muscular convulsions, incoordination of movements and paralysis |
Vitamin B12 | Anemia, growth retardation and lower feed conversion, leg weakness, embryo mortality, reduced piglet survival |
Pantothenic acid | Functional disorders of nervous system, locomotive disorders, scaly skin/dermatitis, fatty degeneration of the liver, reduced antibody formation, reduced appetite, poor feed utilization and growth depression |
Folic acid | Megaloblastic (macrocytic) anemia, skin damage and hair loss, retarded growth and reduced appetite, compromised reproduction in sows, embryonic mortality and smaller litter size |
Biotin | Reduced appetite and retarded growth, fertility disorders; skin ulcers, alopecia, hair loss and dermatitis; inflammation of the hooves and hoof-sole lesions; diarrhea, eye inflammation and changes in oral mucosa |
Vitamin C | Weakness, fatigue and dyspnea; bone pain; hemorrhages of the skin, muscle and certain organs; reduced fertility in both males (reduced sperm quality) and females (termination of corpus luteum) |
Choline | Fatty liver, growth retardation |
The Optimum Vitamin Nutrition (OVN) concept is about feeding animals the right amounts of high-quality vitamins produced with the lowest environmental footprint, appropriate to their life stage and growing conditions to optimize animal health, productivity, food quality and nutritional value. Many nutrients, including fats, proteins, carbohydrates, water, vitamins, and minerals, are essential for growth, health and reproduction; however, optimal (and not minimal or excessive) amounts are required for food-producing animals to perform consistently and efficiently. While feed accounts for as much as 70% of the total cost of production, vitamin fortification accounts for only about 3% of the total feed cost. However, vitamins are essentially involved in 100% of the biological functions in animals. Also, the amounts of vitamins that are sufficient for preventing clinical nutritional deficiencies or diseases are not necessarily enough for optimizing animal health and performance, and the requirements for sustaining growth are likely less than those needed for optimum immune support. Vitamin supplementation in modern swine diets is necessary, as pigs are primarily raised indoors and do not have access to vitamin-rich pastures. The vitamins that are most commonly marginal or deficient in corn-soybean meal-based diets are vitamin A, D3, E, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid and B12; and processed grains, oilseeds or byproducts used to balance the protein and energy requirements in feeds may provide negligible amounts of essential vitamins.
Since the last OVN guidelines in 2016, the productivity and performance potential of pigs has continued to evolve with the efforts to improve profitability and efficiency. Besides the improvements in reproductive performance shown in Table 1, there are continuing improvements in the genetic potential for growth performance and feed efficiency of the progeny. The nutritional requirements to support these biological improvements and goals are not static, and modern genetic companies include the essential levels of vitamin supplementation in their updated nutritional recommendations. The 2022 OVN Guidelines for Swine are the most recent vitamin recommendations for optimizing nutrition, health, and performance, and the 2022 OVN recommendations for gestating sows are shown in Table 4. Additionally, the levels of some (of the less stable) vitamins might need to be evaluated further to accommodate the effects or changes that can occur with certain feed processing and storage methods, particularly when considering concerns around feed ingredient imports and feed biosecurity.
Table 4. Recommendations for Vitamin Supplementation of Sows’ Gestation Diets, IU or mg/kg diet
Vitamin | Unit(1) | Topigs, 2016 | Hypor, 2017 | PIC, 2021 | DanBred, 2021 | OVN, 2016 | OVN, 2022 |
Vitamin A | IU | 10,000 | 12,000 | 9,920 | 10,000 | 10,000 - 15,000 | 10,500 - 15,700 |
Vitamin D3 | IU | 2,000 | 1,500 | 1,985 | 1,000 | 1,500 - 2,000 | 1,570 - 2,100 |
25OHD3 (HyD®) | mg | - | - | - | - | 0.050 | 0.050 |
Vitamin E (2) | mg | 40 | 70 | 66 | 41 | 100 - 150 | 105 - 160 (3) |
Vitamin K3 | mg | 1 | 2 | 4.4 | 4.2 | 4.5 - 5 | 4.7 - 5.2 |
Vitamin B1 | mg | 1-2 | 2 | 2.2 | 2.1 | 2 - 2.5 | 2.1 - 2.6 |
Vitamin B2 | mg | 4-5 | 5 | 10 | 5.2 | 6 - 10 | 6.3 - 10.5 |
Vitamin B6 | mg | 1-3 | 3 | 3.3 | 3.2 | 3.5 - 5.5 | 3.7 - 5.7 |
Vitamin B12 (4) | mg | 0.030-0.050 | 0.05 | 0.037 | 0.03 | 0.03 - 0.05 | 0.032 - 0.052 |
Niacin | mg | 15-50 | 50 | 44 | 21.4 | 30 - 45 | 32 - 47 |
D-Pantothenic Acid | mg | 15-30 | 15 | 33 | 15.3 | 35 - 40 | 37 - 42 |
Folic acid | mg | 3-4 | 4 | 1.33 | 2.0 | 3.5 - 5.5 | 3.7 - 5.7 |
Biotin | mg | 0.3-0.5 | 0.2 | 0.22 | 0.5 | 0.5 - 0.8 | 0.52 - 0.84 |
Vitamin C (5) | mg | - | - | - | Recommended | 200 - 300 | 210 - 315 |
Choline | mg | 500-750 | 750 | 660 | - | 500 - 800 | 525 - 840 |
In summary, vitamin fortification levels for all life-stages of swine should periodically be reviewed and adjusted to correspond with progress made in swine genetics and the changes in industry practices or objectives. With industry trends and expectations for improved productivity, efficiency, welfare, and sustainability in pork production; amid increasing emphasis on digestive health and immune competence in a future with reduced use of antibiotics; an emphasis on vitamin nutrition will continue to be important. The 2022 dsm-firmenich OVN Vitamin Guidelines for Swine provide the most current recommendations for vitamin supplementation in modern swine production. For more information, please contact a dsm-firmenich Animal Nutrition and Health representative.
To announce the new OVN vitamin supplementation guidelines for the swine industry, a webinar titled, “Are swine receiving the right level of vitamins?” was held on October 27, 2022. https://www.dsm.com/anh/news/events/webinar-are-swine-receiving-the-right-level-of-vitamins.html
21 November 2022
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